Harmful algal blooms of phytoplankton and macroalgae include toxic and nuisance species. The increased intensity, magnitude and geographic extent of these blooms in recent decades has coincided with increased alteration of the biosphere, including nutrient over-enrichment and warming aquatic ecosystems.

Further Research

• Anderson et al. 2002. Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: nutrient sources, composition, and consequences.pdf
• Brand et al. 2006. Long-term increase in Karenia brevis abundance along the Southwest Florida Coast.
• Burns. 2008. Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: State of the Science and Research Needs. Chapter 5: Toxic cyanobacteria in Florida waters.pdf
• Congressional Research Service. 2018. Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms: Causes, Challenges, and Policy Considerations.pdf
• Davis et al. 2019. Cyanobacterial neurotoxin BMAA and brain pathology in stranded dolphins.
• Gobler et al. 2001. Ecosystem disruptive algal blooms of the brown tide species, Aureococcus anophagefferens and Aureoumbra lagunesis.
• Havens. 2008. Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms: State of the Science and Research Needs. Chapter 33: Cyanobacteria blooms: effects on aquatic ecosystems.pdf
• Kang et al. 2015. The interactive roles of nutrient loading and zooplankton grazing in facilitating the expansion of harmful algal blooms caused by the pelagophyte, Aureoumbra lagunesis, to the Indian River Lagoon, Fl, USA.
• Kramer et al. 2018. Nitrogen limitation, toxin synthesis potential, and toxicity of Cyanobacteria populations in Lake Okeechobee and the St. Lucie River Estuary, Florida, during the 2016 state of emergency event.
• Krimsky et al. 2018. A response to frequently asked questions about the 2018 algae blooms in Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee, and St. Lucie Estuaries.pdf
• Lapointe et al. 2006. Final Report to Lee County and the City of Bonita Springs: Drift Rhodophyte Blooms Emerge in Lee County, Florida: Evidence of Escalating Coastal Eutrophication.pdf
• Lapointe et al. 2005. Macroalgal blooms on southeast Florida coral reefs I. Nutrient stoichiometry of the invasive green alga Codium isthmocladum in the wider Caribbean indicates nutrient enrichment.
• Landsberg et al. 2006. Saxitoxin Puffer Fish poisoning in the United States, with the first report of Pyrodinium bahamense  as the putative toxin source.pdf
• O’neil et al. 2011. The rise of harmful cyanobacteria blooms: The potential roles of eutrophication and climate change.pdf
• Paerl et al. 2008. Science. Blooms like it hot.
• Paerl et al. 2013. Harmful Cyanobacteria blooms: Causes, consequences, and controls.
• Parsons et al. 2019. Preliminary report on air sampling of particle-associated microcystins and BMAA pilot study in Lee County, Florida: Fall 2018-Winter 2019.pdf
• Phlips et al. 1999. Blooms of the picoplankton cyanobacterium Synechococcus in Florida Bay, a subtropical inner-shelf lagoon.pdf
• Phlips et al. 2010. Scales of temporal and spatial variability in the distribution of harmful algae species in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA.pdf
• Phlips et al. 2004. The occurrence of potentially toxic dinoflagellates and diatoms in a subtropical lagoon, The Indian River Lagoon, Florida, USA.
• Shumway et al. 2018. Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference.pdf
• St. Johns River Water Management District. 1999. Blue-green algae in Florida waters: Effects on water quality
• Tester et al. 2007. Gymnodinium breve red tide blooms: Initiation, transport, and consequences of surface circulation.
• Yentsch et al. 2008. Anatomy of a red tide bloom off the southwest Florida Coast.pdf
• Zhang et al. 2015. Cyanobacteria blooms and non-alcoholic liver disease: evidence from a county level ecological study in the United States.